Across North Carolina, treated sewage sludge—known as biosolids—is spread on farmland as fertilizer. But growing concerns over PFAS contamination have farmers, utilities, and regulators grappling with tough choices.
How land application works
For decades, wastewater treatment plants have processed human and industrial waste, creating biosolids that are then used to fertilize crops and improve soil health.
Stuart Beam, a farmer in western North Carolina, has used biosolids on his farm since the 1980s.
“From the public perspective, there’s less cost versus other methods of disposing of it,” Beam said. “At the end of the day, that’s what we’re doing, because it has to go somewhere.”
The practice is permitted and regulated, with biosolids applied to less than 1% of agricultural land in the state. Farmers must follow strict guidelines, such as waiting periods before harvesting crops or grazing livestock on treated land.
“We have to follow very tight regulations,” Beam said. “There are withdrawals. We cannot graze livestock on treated ground for 30 days, and we cannot harvest any forage or hay for 30 days. If we are applying biosolids to land intended for food crops, we have to wait 20 to 38 months before harvesting.”
PFAS concerns in biosolids
The concern over biosolids stems from the presence of PFAS—per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances—commonly used in household and industrial products. PFAS chemicals do not break down in the environment and have been linked to cancer, thyroid disease, and immune system issues. When biosolids containing PFAS are spread on farmland, the chemicals can seep into soil, water, and the food supply.
“The PFAS are in the solids. There’s no debate about that,” Beam said. “The question is, at what levels?”
The North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) acknowledges the potential risks but says more research is needed.
“NCDEQ’s Division of Water Resources is aware that biosolid waste can contain PFAS and has the potential to contaminate surface waters, groundwater, and reservoirs, but at this time, more investigative work is needed to understand impacts to surface waters, and what mitigation is needed,” DEQ said in a statement.
DEQ conducted an initial biosolids study in 2023 and 2024, sampling sewage sludge applied to dedicated fields. The agency plans to release findings later this year and use both state and EPA data to guide next steps.
The challenge for utilities
Utilities, caught in the middle of this debate, face mounting pressure to address PFAS contamination. But with few disposal alternatives, they say they need more support.
“We don’t generate PFAS,” said Ed Buchan, strategic planning manager at Raleigh Water. “It just passes through our system and becomes concentrated in biosolids.”
While utilities are working to track sources of PFAS in wastewater, solutions remain elusive. OWASA, the utility serving Chapel Hill and Carrboro, has started testing biosolids for PFAS and monitoring its potential impact.
“We’re hopeful that when we treat our drinking water for PFAS, we’ll also see a reduction in PFAS in wastewater effluent and biosolids—but we just don’t know yet,” said Katie Hall, public information officer for OWASA.
Limited disposal alternatives
Eliminating land application altogether would create a major challenge. Right now, the only other options for disposal are sending biosolids to a landfill or incinerating them—both costly and imperfect solutions.
Landfilling biosolids is expensive, and space is running out at many landfills across the Southeast. Incineration is another option, but it is not a proven safe method for PFAS disposal. North Carolina has four operating sewage sludge incinerators in Greensboro, Asheville, High Point, and Concord, but the Division of Air Quality did not immediately respond to questions about whether PFAS emissions are monitored at these facilities.
Farmers say more testing is needed to fully understand the risks and ensure biosolids can be applied safely.
“We really need more testing,” said Keith Larick, natural resources director at the North Carolina Farm Bureau. “Farmers need to know that if they accept biosolids, they’re safe.”
For now, utilities, regulators, and farmers are left navigating a growing problem with no easy answers. Many hope the ultimate solution will be stopping PFAS at the source—by limiting industrial discharges and phasing the chemicals out of consumer products.
“It would really take a significant nationwide effort to stop the introduction of PFAS into wastewater streams,” said environmental attorney Ken Sansone.
With DEQ’s report expected later this year, North Carolina may soon have more data to help shape future regulations. But for now, biosolids remain both a practical necessity and a growing concern.
How biosolid land application works
Biosolids are a byproduct of wastewater treatment. Once treated, they are spread on permitted farmland to improve soil quality and provide nutrients. Less than 1% of agricultural land in North Carolina receives biosolid applications, but for the farmers who use them, the benefits are significant.
“If you’re a permitted farm and you’re having biosolids applied, then more than likely you are having regular soil testing done at no cost,” said Stuart Beam, a farmer in Rutherford County who has used biosolids since the 1980s. “You’re having your pH balanced regularly, and you’re getting some fertilizer value out of it.”
Farmers must follow strict regulations on biosolid use, including withdrawal periods before crops can be harvested or livestock can graze on treated land.
“There are withdrawals. We cannot graze livestock on treated ground for 30 days. We cannot harvest any forage, hay or food product for 30 days off treated ground,” Beam said. “And on our farm operation, we don’t graze treated ground.”
The PFAS problem
PFAS—per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances—are synthetic chemicals used in nonstick cookware, waterproof clothing, and firefighting foam. They are known as “forever chemicals” because they don’t break down in the environment and can accumulate in soil, water, and living organisms.
“The PFAS are in the solids. There’s no debate about that,” Beam said. “The question is: At what levels?”
PFAS contamination in biosolids has been linked to farmland pollution in multiple states. In Maine, PFAS-tainted dairy products led to a statewide ban on biosolid land application in 2022.
While no such contamination has been confirmed in North Carolina’s food supply, researchers have found PFAS in drinking water linked to past biosolid applications.
“We really need more testing,” said Keith Larick, natural resources director at the North Carolina Farm Bureau. “Farmers need to know that if they accept biosolids, they’re safe.”
The challenge of disposal
If biosolid land application were banned in North Carolina, municipalities would have few other options for disposal. The most immediate alternative—sending biosolids to landfills—is costly and unsustainable.
“What would change would be the cost to the general public,” Beam said. “Because right now, land application is the most cost-effective, simplest way to dispose of biosolids. If you start incinerating or sending it to normal landfills, that cost is going to be passed on to consumers.”
Landfills across the Southeast are filling up, and the rising costs of waste disposal could result in higher utility rates. Incineration is another option, but experts say it is expensive and not a proven safe method for eliminating PFAS.
North Carolina has four operating sewage sludge incinerators in Greensboro, Asheville, High Point, and Concord. The North Carolina Division of Air Quality did not immediately respond to questions about PFAS testing or monitoring at these sites.
What’s next?
The North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality (NCDEQ) acknowledges the risks associated with PFAS in biosolids but says more research is needed.
“NCDEQ’s Division of Water Resources is aware that biosolid waste can contain PFAS and has the potential to contaminate surface waters, groundwater, and reservoirs, but at this time, more investigative work is needed to understand impacts to surface waters and what mitigation is needed,” NCDEQ said in a statement.
The agency conducted an initial biosolids study in 2023 and 2024, which involved sampling sewage sludge applied to dedicated fields. It plans to release its findings later this year and will use state and EPA data to help guide next steps to protect drinking water sources.
As regulators work to better understand the risks, some believe the real solution is stopping PFAS at the source—by limiting industrial discharges and phasing out PFAS in consumer products.
“It would really take a significant nationwide effort to stop the introduction of PFAS into wastewater streams,” said attorney Ken Sansone, who has represented utilities in PFAS-related litigation.
For now, farmers, utilities, and regulators are left trying to manage a growing problem—with few easy answers.
